THE OPIUM WARS OF CHINA Essays - Economic History Of China

THE OPIUM WARS OF CHINA By: Inaan Damaraju Tuesday May 9, 2016 Mrs. Linda Doolittle The Opium Wars of 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 marked a new stage in Chinas affiliation with the West. Chinas military failures in these wars forced its rulers to sign treaties opening a great number of ports to foreign trade. The restrictions enforced under the Canton system were nullified. Opium, despite imperial restrictions, now became a regular item of trade. As opium choked the Chinese market, its price dropped, and local consumption of the drug increased swiftly. The drug infiltrated all levels of society, from the peasant to the nobles. In the new treaty ports, foreign traders worked together with a greater variety of Chinese merchants than under the Canton system, and they ventured deeply into the Chinese interior. Missionaries brought Christian values and teachings to villagers; the diplomatic rights obtained under the treaties protected them. Popular hostility to the new foreigners began to rise. The Opium wars are rightly named, as it was not trade, but rather unrestrict ed drug trade, the countries addiction to opium, weakened military and antagonism between the locals and foreigners that brought China down. Under the system enforced by the Qing dynasty to manage and control trade in the 18th century, Western traders were allowed to conduct trade only through the southern port of Canton (Guangzhou). They were restricted, and forced to reside in the city within a limited space, including their warehouses. They were prevented from bringing their family along, and they could not stay there more than a few months of the year. Qing officials closely watched over trading relations, allowing only approved merchants from Western countries to trade through a monopoly guild of Chinese merchants called the Cohong. Western merchants could not contact Qing officials directly, and there were no formal relations between China and Western countries. The Qing emperor regarded trade as a form a tribute, or gifts given to him personally to honor his greatness. Western traders, for their part, conducted trade through licensed monopoly companies, like Britains East India Company and the Dutch VOC. Despite th e great many restrictions, both sides found a way to make the situation favorable by learning how to make profits through cooperation with each other. The Chinese Hong merchants, the key middlemen between the foreign traders and the officials, developed close relations with Westerners, instructing them on how to conduct their business without bothering the Chinese bureaucracy. As the volume of trade grew, however, the British demanded more and more access to Chinas markets. Tea exports from China grew exponentially from 92,000 pounds in 1700 to 2.7 million pounds in 1751. By 1800 the East India Company was purchasing approximately 23 million pounds of tea per year all at a cost of of 3.6 million pounds of silver. Concerned that the China trade was draining England of all its silver, the British searched for a equivalent asset to trade for tea and porcelain. They found it in opium, which they planted in large quantities after they had taken Bengal, in India, in 1757. In 1816, Lord Ge orge Mcartney went on a mission to the court in Beijing in 1793 that was aimed to promote British trade by creating direct ties between the British government and the emperor. After his failure in 1816, the British were convinced that force as to only way to get China to open up its ports. The major Indian source of British opium pledged for China was in Patna, Bengal, where the drug was processed and packed into large 140-pound chests. The annual flow to China was approximately 4,000 chests by 1790, and a little more than double by the early 1820s. Imports began to increase at an astonishing rate in the 1830s, however, as free trade agitation gained strength in Britain and the East India Companys control over the Chinese international trade approached its termination date (in 1834). The Company became more dependent than ever on the revenue generated through opium. While private merchants hurried to increase their stake in the enticing trade. On the eve of the first Opium War, the British were shipping around 40,000 chests to China annually. By this date, it was

Essay on Abolition of Slavery.

Essay on Abolition of Slavery. Essay on Abolition of Slavery. Abolition of Slavery The abolition of slavery has been seen throughout history as a way to have all people be treated equal. Things like wars have been fought over weather having slaves are an okay thing versus having slaves is a bad thing. Within our own history, a war was fought for this very reason and in the end helped to abolish slavery to an extent. Other people did it in a less, bloody way, which one way is to write about slavery and within the writing show how bad slavery can actually be. Fredrick Douglass was one of these writers. Douglass was born into slavery and spent most of his young life as one. He started to learn how to read and write as a child but it was put to an end because back then it was believed that a slave was no good if taught. Douglass interest only grew and once a young man, he left to the north to gain his freedom so he would no longer be someone’s property but his own being. In Fredrick Douglass’s narrative of his life, 1945, he writes ab out is time as a slave. In this one he tells others what he had to do and what he was required to do as a slave. He also would describe how a slave was treated and the horror he felt when he learned what â€Å"slavery† actually meant. In this version of his narrative he was more straight forward with the facts and not as emotional as the second version might be seen as. In his second version, Douglass yet again says things about slavery but also about his life. He describes in detail more about things that happened to him and the family he had while growing up. He almost seems to be putting his own emotion into this writing then just explaining how it is like in his first version of his autobiography. With these two writings of Douglass, it seems to me he is trying to get other people to see how slavery actually is. Reason why is because in his first version he is explaining what slavery really was to him and what kind of things were required of him to do. In a way, he create s almost a sense of feeling sorry for him and all he went through as a slave. The readers who seem to be attracted to these writings seems to be ones who may want to learn more about slavery through an actual slave’s eyes. I am not sure if Douglass literally lies out to stop slavery but I believe he does other things around it. In describing how horribly he was treated, and others, as a slave he almost gets people to feel pity for what happened to him and the others around him. He shows how wrong slavery is by just describing his life and experiences as one. He shows in his writing that he gains a great interest in learning to read, just to have it stripped away from him because if he has is he will be useless to the people who own him. Then to add more to the story he shows what happens when he is actually free. He shows that life is better for him now and he can finally know how to read without an â€Å"owner† telling him he will be useless if he learns. Learning to read is actually a good thing for him and can help him be able to do more in his life. He is creating negativity to slavery by just explaining what he went through and what he accomplished once he was no longer owned. Douglass’s first version was not so much as persuasions as it was to the point. He went right on explaining was happened, not goes into it easily or said much this was the wrong thing to do. He was to the point mostly and wanted to explain what things really were like. In the second version he goes into more detail kind of showing a deeper look into his own life and how things need to change for the better of his people. Another writer would be a woman called Stowe. She was not a slave, white, but sympathized with the slaves. She was the daughter of a preacher who was taken care of by her eldest sister mostly when their mother died. Stowe would start to write and see slaves viewpoints more as she grew older and especially after a huge event in her life, the deat h of her son. Stowe would

Global Marketing and Advertising Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Global Marketing and Advertising - Assignment Example Such is an effective strategy that ensures that they develop advertising contents that resonate with the uniqueness of the respective markets. Key among the factors that influence the decisions to localize advertising is the fact that emerging markets become the most lucrative markets for some of the leading global brands. They must, therefore, find appropriate ways of penetrating the unique markets. Hollensen, (2004) asserts that localizing advertisement is vital since it limits the costs of marketing to the prevailing marketing costs in any given market. Introducing a new product in a new market requires the company to employ appropriate brand development strategies. Developing a brand requires the effective introduction of the product a feature that validates the localized advertising. Any company such as those marketing whiskeys like Johnnie Walker cannot employ the same marketing strategies it uses in the United States in such a new country as China. The United States is an established market. Johnnie Walker is a stable brand and a market leader in the country. In China, Johnnie Walker is a new brand with the company barely introducing its products. The company, therefore, uses localized advertising in China with the view to introducing and developing a brand in the country as it has in the United States. In emerging markets, the company uses basic target market strategies such as the marketing mix. The marketing mix is a vital introductory and product developmental strategy that presents specific features of a product (Kotler & Armstrong, 1991). Key among such features is the product itself, the price of the product, place, and promotion. The attractiveness of the emerging markets often enhances the development of a scramble for the market. This requires strategic yet aggressive marketing that validates the use of the marketing mix since it presents the price of a product as a major competitive advantage.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies Essay

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies - Essay Example Unlike research studies in other fields, studies in health and social sciences involving the use of human subjects requires greater caution. The Helsinki Declaration of the World Medical Association declares that, though progress in health-related fields requires research and experimentation involving the use of human subjects, considerations related to the 'well being of the human subjects should take precedence over science and the society' and that the primary objective of such studies, involving human subjects, is to better understand and improve on diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, and to better understand the causes and progression of diseases (WMA, 2000). Furthermore, the drive towards evidence-based practice in several fields has also meant that professional decision must be made on the basis of the best available evidence (Crawford et al., 2002). Putting all these factors together, it becomes obvious that making use of the most appropriate research instruments/methodology is not only important for the validity of the final result, but also for the utility and relevance of the result findings to professional practice. This fact has meant that deciding the best research methodology for any particular research effort is one of the most important decisions of a researcher. Obviously in response to this trend, over the decades, several research methods have been developed, while existing ones have been continually refined to meet the demands of the modern researcher. However, quantitative and qualitative research methodologies though composed of an array of several, and at times contrasting principles; have stood the test of time, in a number of research fields (Murphy, 2000). Therefore, the purpose of this essay is to argue in favour of the use of qualitative and quantitative research methods/methodologies to assess 100 risk factors collected over a period of five years based on interviews and considered as the primary data for a research study. To achieve this, the rest of the paper will be structured thus: the next section will define and briefly explain the concepts of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies; this will be followed by an analysis of the difference and similarities of these two methods of inquiry. The third section will examine the benefits of using qualitative and quantitative research methods in the research study at hand that is, assessing 100 risk factors collected over a five year period through interviews; in the light of other research methods like phenomenology and others. This is intended to show that qualitative and quantitative research methods are better suited for the study at hand. The last part of the essay wil l present the concluding remarks. According to Lindsay (2002), considering the fact that the ultimate goal of risk assessment is to achieve a health impact, through understanding the aetiology of disease conditions to effect a reduction in mortality and morbidity due to the risks, and thus, achieve an improvement in health (p.571), research studies involved with risk assessment are therefore better presented and more useful in quantifiable terms. As a result,

Marketing Sales Caae Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Sales Caae Analysis - Essay Example According to the company’s executive vice president of sales, what adds to the problem is the drain on the district managers’ time. With the quick turnover of sales people, the district managers’ have to constantly go through the recruitment procedure all over again, depriving them of time to spend on working on their districts. Salespeople are already complaining that their managers are spending very limited time with them, which is also the reason for the high turnover because new hires are left to fend for themselves right after training Moreover, training is not centralized. Training is conducted by district which at worst may mean that ten trainees are being trained by ten managers, a costly and inefficient process. Moreover, the district managers have not really been trained or prepared to handle recruitment, so screening and interviewing depend on individual methods employed by the district managers which may not be correct and appropriate and may be a con tributing cause to the high turnover. To address these issues, the job goals set for Al Kantak, the new field sales employment manager are to decrease the cost per hire; to establish a uniform recruitment program; to increase the quality of new hires; to reduce the amount of time managers spend recruiting; decrease the number of vacant territory days per year; and eliminate the dependence on recruitment agencies. Al Kantak’s initial assessment was to come up with a five-year plan where at the end of five years, all the goals set would have been accomplished. However, the plan will also include major results in a few years within the 5-year timeframe. Due to the large volume of recruits needed, Al would be primarily targeting college campuses across the United States. Based on the information gathered related to the recruitment situation at UCI, a number of key issues

Analysis Of Who Is Thutmose Iii History Essay

Analysis Of Who Is Thutmose Iii History Essay Thutmose III also known as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis was the sixth Pharaoh of Egypt in the Eighteenth Dynasty who was one of the greatest Egyptian military leader and rulers. Thutmose III was Thutmose IIs son and his mother was Isis who is one of wives of Thutmose II. Thutmose IIIs Egyptian name Djehutymes means Born of Thoth, the god of writing and wisdom. Pharaoh of Egypt B. Why is it important to sketch his biography? Thutmose III was Egypts greatest warrior pharaoh. He transformed his country into the first great empire in the Ancient World. From 1479 to 1425 BC, he was a prolific builder of temples during his reign. He captured 350 cities and won much of areas which were the Near East, from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen that were known military campaigns. Thus he became an active expansionist ruler. He was the first pharaoh to cross the Euphrates, during his campaign against Mitanni. Therefore, on the Asmens walls temple of Karnak were transcribe of his campaign. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Early life A.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Date and place of birth The Egyptian king, Thutmose III, was born in Egypt in 1516 B.C. Thutmose III governed Egypt for nearly fifty-four years, and his regime was started from 24th April, 1479 BC to 11th March, 1425 BC which was also included the twenty-two years he was Hatshepsuts co-regent whom she was his stepmother and aunt. B. Family Thutmose III was the Thutmose IIs and Isets son. He was the pharaohs only son. Therefore, he would only the first person for the throne after Thutmose II died. When his father died, he became pharaoh, but Hatshepsuthis fathers widow, acted as regent and the dominant co-ruler and real ruler of Egypt because he was only the age of 7 at that time. She made all executive decisions through his childhood. She grew so accustomed to power that she yielded virtually no authority to Thutmose III until at least his late teen years. During this period Hatshepsut assumed the title Egypts and wore male a pharaohs regalia and donned the traditional false beard of a pharaoh. After she died, he must have truly resented her. Thutmose III removed Hatshepsut from Ancient Egyptian historical records in order to become a great warrior king who launched successful military campaigns Canaan, Syria, Nubia and Mitanni in Mesopotamia increasing the wealth and power of Egypt. Thutmose III married Hatshepsut whose Merytres youngest daughter. They had a child together named Amenhotep II. Moreover, he had other wives like Menhet, Menwi, Meritamen, Merti, Nebetu, Neferure, Sitioh and Yabet. He also had 11 daughters such as Ahmose Meritamen II, Henutan, Meryptah, Neferamen, Petkeie, Petpui, Sathora, Sitamen I, Takhete, Touai and Uiey. C. Education Thutmose III was very young when his father died and was the co-regent of Hatshepsut-his stepmother. Thutmose III was given an education befitting his royal station. He would have been taught about everything from culture and art to military and leadership techniques. He learned all military skills, including archery and horsemanship. Thutmose played very important and active part in the Egypts government. Thutmose III might have been entrusted with command of the army on campaign in Nubia twice. III. Political life A. First Campaign When Hatshepsut died, Thutmose III was twenty second year sixth month and ten day. According to information from the king of Kadesh where a single stela from Armant advanced his army to Megiddlo, on the twenty-fifth day of the eighth month, Thutmose III trooped his army and left Egypt, crossing to Tjarus border fortress (Sile). Thutmose led his musters through the coastal plain-Jamnia, then to Yehem which was a small city near Megiddo that he arrived in the same year of the middle of the ninth month. The Battle of Megiddo might be the biggest battle in any of seventeen campaigns of Thutmose. A mountains range jut from Mount Carmel stood which was between Thutmose and Megiddo, and he had three possible ways to take. Based on the accession of Thutmose III in 1479 BC, this date corresponds was 9th May, 1457 BC. B. Tours of Canaan and Syria The occurrence of the second, third and fourth campaigns of Thutmose III have not been any tours of Syria and Canaan to regain tax. Furthermore, the second campaign has been concerned to be the material directly of the first campaign. It collected tribute from the Egyptians, known as Retenu-roughly equivalent to Canaan, and it was known that Assyria gave a second tribute to Thutmose III at that time. Anyways, these tributes were paid until Thutmose III was forty years or later, thus the second campaign did not get anything to Thutmose III. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conquest of Syria The fifth, sixth, and seventh campaigns of Thutmose III were against directly to Phoenician cities, city of Syria and also against Kadesh which on the Orontes. Unlike previous plundering raids, nevertheless, Thutmose III often garrisoned the Djahyperhaps referring to southern Syria. This consequently allowed him to ship foods and musters between Syria and Egypt. Even through there is no specific evidence for it, for this reason some people believe that the sixth campaign of Thutmose III in his thirtieth years of his regime, began with sending his troops directly to Byblos and entire of by-pass of Canaan. They started to get into the river valley of Jordan and also went to north from there then turned to west again after the musters reached in Syria by whatever ways. Thutmose III won Simyra and put down a revolt in Ardata. Thutmose commenced taking ruler in Syria in order to stop such rebellions. Thutmose III smiting his enemies. Relief on the seventh pylon in Karnak Attack on Mitanni Mitanni which was a Hurrian state and ruling class of Indo-Aryan was the eighth campaign of Thutmose IIIs objective after Thutmose III took over the cities of Syrian. He had to cross the Euphrates River in order to reach Mitanni. Thus by, Thutmose III enacted many strategies. Obviously, a militia was increased for the purpose to fight against the attackers; however, its vehicles were very poor. Then Thutmose III returned to Syria by Niy road, where was recorded Thutmose III started to hunt elephant. Later Thutmose III received tribute from other foreign states and he went back to Egypt. E. Tours of Syria The Mitannis ruler had raised a huge army and engaged the Egyptians around Aleppo in Thutmoses thirty-fifth year. As usual for any Egyptian king, there is a suspect statement said that Thutmose boasted a total crushing victory. Thutmose III turned back to Nukhashashe that was the area of very small campaign of Thutmose IIIs thirteenth campaign. One year later, Shasu was goal of the fourteenth campaign of Thutmose III. Nevertheless, the location is indefinite to determine, since the Shasu were migrates who lived in Lebanon through Transjordan and Edom. From this point on, campaigns can only be counted by date because the numbers that were given by Thutmoses writers to his campaigns. F. Nubian Campaign In nearly end of his life, Thutmose III also had the one last campaign that was his fifteenth campaign. He invaded Nubia; nevertheless, he only reached the fourth Niles waterfall. There was no Egypts ruler had ever done as he did with invaders. The former rulers campaigns had already extended to Egyptian culture. Actually the earliest Egyptian information was discovered at Gebel Barkal. IV. Mummy Thutmose III died on his 54 year of rein in 1450 B.C. His tomb is in the Kings valley (KV34). He would have made his 55th year being in control if he died one month and four days later. In 1881 Thutmose III mummy was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache about the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. The mummy of him was in bad condition since tomb robbers got to it already. He was interred along with other eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty leaders such as Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX, and the twenty-first dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I, Pinedjem II, and Siamun. Mummified head of Thutmose III V. Conclusion Thutmose III was a great warrior and ruler pharaoh. His rule was one of strong battle in accent Egypt, which had over 350 cities fell under his reign. There is little doubt that his numerous campaigns were extremely successful. Actually he had enlargement of military during his reign. Hence, he has been seen as the Napoleon of Ancient Egypt.

Digital Media in the Past and Present Essay -- Technology Electronics

Digital Media in the Past and Present In today’s world digital media are everywhere, TV, newspapers, advertisements, and magazines. Almost everywhere you look you will find some sort of digital technology. Digital technology has come along way since the beginning of its time in. Although computers were invented long before; digital technology didn’t start to shine its light until the early 80’s. Originally, NASA developed digital imaging for the US space program in the 1960s (History of the digital camera, 2001). NASA needed a reliable way to get photographs back from the probes, which were never to return to the Earth. George Lucas combined with Adobe to help start the digital art movement with the creation of Photoshop. Companies such as Adobe, Microsoft, Hewitt Packard, Kodak and Sony are a few of the top brands in digital design. A brief history into the digital world mainly begins in 1984 when Sony released its first digital video camera. It used analog recording technology and saved data to a 2.5† floppy disk. The quality of these cameras was quite poor. At the same time Kodak came out with their 8mm camera, but had a hard time finding a buying market. Kodak eventually shut down the electronic photography division. Meanwhile Sony found the market, and began the digital boom. In 1985 the â€Å"Targa video card was introduced. It was a 24 bit color display card, that allowed the user to capture video images to the computer.† (www.home.eznet.net/) The first scanner was introduced in 1986, known as the Thunderscan digitizer. It used the Apple ImageWriter printer to capture the image, in black and white dots. And in 1990 Kodak introduced the first digital camera and photo CD. There was also the introduction of imaging software ... ...sroom" with "digital walls and ceiling" would not need a projector, the information and images would appear on the surrounding surfaces.† He also predicts that these types of projectors will to be able to project 3D images. For example if you were learning about the statue of David, at the click of a button the projector could make a replica of the statue and portray it in the middle of the room. Learning experience will become astronomical in a just a few years. Resources will just be unlimited. The world today is becoming completely based on computers. Less then twenty years ago no one would have believed that almost every household in America would contain a personal computer. Now it’s rare not to own one, some houses contain multiple computers. For this reason its no wonder that the world is going digital. Digital technology just improves so many opportunities.

How Important Are Ethics and Social Responsibility?

The research register for this journal is available at http://www. mcbup. com/research_registers The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com/ft How important are ethics and social responsibility? A multinational study of marketing professionals Anusorn Singhapakdi and Kiran Karande College of Business and Public Administration, Old Dominion University, Virginia, USA How important are ethics? 133 Received September 1998 Revised March 1999 June 1999 September 1999 College of Administrative Sciences, Kuwait University, Safat, Kuwait, and School of Business Administration, University of Mississippi, USA Keywords International marketing, Ethics, Social responsibility, National cultures, Consumer behaviour Abstract States that in the present era of global marketing, as more companies enter international markets, ethical problems are likely to increase. As companies and their managers deal with their counterparts in different countries, there is a need to understand the latter's ethical decision-making processes. Divergence in ethical behavior and attitudes of marketing professionals across cultures can be explained by, among other variables, differences in perceptions regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. This study investigates the variation in those perceptions among marketing professionals from Australia, Malaysia, South Africa, and the USA. The variation is explained by country differences (cultural differences, differences in the economic environment, and differences in legal/political environment), organizational ethical climate, and selected demographic characteristics of the marketer (gender and age). C. P. Rao Scott J. Vitell Introduction The study of ethics has become increasingly important with global business expansion, because of an increase in ethical and social responsibility  ± concerns that businesses face in different country environments. There exists, however, a wide divergence in the level of importance attached to these two issues in different countries (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 1998). Moreover, vast differences exist from country to country in the economic development, cultural standards, legal/political systems, and expectations regarding business conduct (Wotruba, 1997). In addition, there is great divergence in the enforcement of policies (Mittelstaedt and Mittelstaedt, 1997). The authors would like to thank Mohd. Rashid Ahmed, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Malaysia; Nicola Higgs-Kleyn, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; and Muris Cicic, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia for their assistance in the data collection for this study. The authors would also like to thank Janet Marta for her comments on the earlier versions of the manuscript. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35 No. 1/2, 2001, pp. 133-152. # MCB University Press, 0309-0566 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 134 In the business ethics literature, ethical variations among marketers/ managers from different nations are documented in many empirical studies on various types of ethical issues (e. g. Armstrong et al. , 1990; Graham, 1985; Becker and Fritzsche, 1987). Variation in ethics across cultures was evidenced in a cross-national study of industrial salespeople by Dubinsky et al. (1991) where some significant differences in ethical perceptions were found among marketing managers from Japan, Korea, and the USA. A study by Singhapakdi et al. 1994) also revealed that American and Thai marketers differ on various components of their ethical decision-making process. However, international researchers have not investigated differences in the extent to which marketers from different countries believe that ethics and social responsibility are important for organizational effectiveness. An individual's perception about whether ethics and social responsibility contribute to organizational effectivenes s is likely to be a critical antecedent of whether he/she even perceives an ethical problem in a given situation (Singhapakdi et al. 1995). This is a pragmatic view based on an argument that managers must first perceive ethics and social responsibility to be vital to organizational effectiveness before their behaviors will become more ethical and reflect greater social responsibility. This view is consistent with Hunt and Vitell's (1986) depiction of ethical judgment as including a teleological evaluation, when an individual evaluates alternative actions by weighing the perceived probability and desirability of consequences. Essentially, a manager's choice of behavior in a situation that has problematic ethical content will be based on his/her perception of the likelihood that the actions will bring about a desired outcome. This view is also consistent with Jones' (1991) issue-contingent model where it is postulated that the â€Å"probability of effect† which is defined as â€Å"the probability that the act in question will actually take place and the act in question will actually cause the harm (benefit)† (Jones, 1991, p. 75) will affect an individual's ethical decision making. Intuitively, ethics and social responsibility should have a positive impact on the success of an organization, because consumers make ethical judgments that are likely to influence their purchases. As Laczniak and Murphy (1993, p. 5) put it: Consumers over time will normally recognize the organizations that attempt to be responsive to various ethical and social factors in the marketplace. Accordingly, it is vital for marketers to incorporate ethical and social considerations in their work. Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate whether marketers from Australia, Malaysia, South Africa, and the USA differ in the extent to which they believe that ethical and socially responsible practices are important in relation to various aspects of organizational effectiveness such as quality, communication, profits, competitiveness, survival, efficiency, and stakeholder satisfaction. Based on past literature that emphasizes cultural factors, corporate culture, and individual characteristics (e. g. Hunt and Vitell, 1986; Ferrell and Gresham, 1985), the cross-cultural variation in marketers' perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness is explained by country differences (including cultural differences and differences in the economic environment), organizational ethical climate, and selected demographic characteristics of individual marketers. The four countries included were judged appropriate because they are geographically separated and exhibit differences in terms of Hofstede's (1980) five cultural dimensions and the level of economic development, which are used to support the hypothesis about country differences. Theoretical foundation and hypotheses In this section it is proposed that the variations in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness is explained by country differences (including cultural differences and differences in the economic environment), organizational ethical climate, and individual characteristics of gender and age. Figure 1 summarizes the proposed framework. Country differences Cultural differences. Hofstede (1980) and Hofstede and Bond (1988) proposed a typology for classifying cultures based on five dimensions: (1) individualism; (2) uncertainty avoidance; How important are ethics? 135 Figure 1. Theoretical framework European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 136 (3) power distance; (4) masculinity; and (5) Confucian dynamism. It is hypothesized that these cultural dimensions contribute to differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. For example, marketers in collectivistic countries (such as Malaysia) would be expected to be more loyal to their organizations because of greater dependence (Hofstede, 1983), and therefore, concerned for their organization's well-being when making decisions that enhance organizational effectiveness. Consequently, collectivistic cultures would attach more importance to achieving superior organizational performance than to ethics and socially responsibility. Masculine societies encourage individuals to be ambitious and competitive, and to strive for material success (Hofstede, 1980), which may tempt marketers from countries ranking high on masculinity to achieve greater efficiency, at all costs. Therefore, they would attach less importance to ethics and social responsibility than to efficiency, competitiveness, and long-term survival. Individuals from cultures with high power distance (such as Malaysia) usually accept the inequality of power, perceive differences between superiors and subordinates, are reluctant to disagree with superiors and believe that superiors are entitled to privileges (Hofstede, 1983). Consequently, marketers from high power distance countries are likely to perceive a need to minimize disagreement with superiors and satisfy superiors through improved performance. In other words, organizational performance is likely to be relatively more important to them relative to the extent to which a decision is ethical and socially responsible. The risk-taking orientation of marketers from low uncertainty avoiding countries would lead them to believe that it might be worth taking the risk of unethical actions in order to improve efficiency and competitiveness. Therefore, marketers from low uncertainty avoidance countries are likely to attach less importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Individuals in countries ranking high on Confucian dynamism tend to adhere to the more future-oriented teachings of Confucius; those from countries ranking low on Confucian dynamism tend to be more present- and past-oriented (Hofstede and Bond, 1988). From the perspective of this study, marketers from cultures ranking high on Confucian dynamism have a strong sense of shame and are likely to be wary of actions that are improper or disgraceful. Marketers from high Confucian dynamism countries (such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea) would, therefore, believe that any actions bringing disrepute and shame to the company would be detrimental to organizational performance. This is also consistent with the greater future-orientation of individuals from these countries. Alternatively, it is also possible that marketers from high Confucian dynamism countries might be sensitive to the shame arising out of inferior performance and might therefore believe that greater efficiency and profits are important at the cost of ethics and social responsibility. In other words, the effects of Confucian dynamism might be expected in both directions. Table I summarizes Hofstede's ranking of the four countries on five dimensions of culture (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede and Bond, 1988). It is apparent that, in general, Australians, Americans, and South Africans are higher on individualism and masculinity and lower on uncertainty avoidance and power distance than Malaysians. On Confucian dynamism, the USA and Australia rank very close. Although there is no ranking available for South Africa and Malaysia, Malaysians can be expected to rank higher because of a strong Chinese influence, especially in the business sector (Hong Kong and Taiwan rank first and second on Confucian dynamism). Based on individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance, Malaysian marketers would be expected to have lower perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility than marketers from Australia, South Africa, and the USA. Based on masculinity, it would be expected that Malaysian managers will have greater perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness than those from the other three countries, whereas based on Confucian dynamism it is only possible to hypothesize differences. Therefore, based on the cultural differences outlined above, we would expect Australian, Malaysian, US, and South African marketers to attach different levels of importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Economic environment differences. Countries also have different economic and business environments, including the legal environment and societal expectations about business ethics in a given country. In developed countries (such as the USA and Australia), the business environment is typically characterized by powerful business enterprises, a legal environment aimed at eliciting ethical behaviors on the part of businesses, and societal expectations that businesses should be more ethical and socially responsible. These environmental forces may make the marketers in developed countries attach greater importance to the ethical and social responsibilities of their respective businesses. In developing countries, on the other hand (e. . Malaysia and South Africa), the business and economic environmental forces are still evolving and hence the marketers' perceived importance of business ethics and social responsibility may be lower relative to their counterparts in developed Country Australia Malaysia South Africa USA Power distance Individualism 36 104 49 40 (41) (1) (36-37) (38) 90 26 65 91 (2) (36) (16) (1) Masculinity 61 50 63 62 (16) (25-26) (13-14) (15) Uncertainty avoidance 51 36 49 46 (37) (46) (39-40) (43) Confucian dynamism 31 (11-12) n/a n/a 29 (14) How important are ethics? 137 Note: a Ranks range from 1-53 for all dimensions except Confucian dynamism 1-20 Source: Hofstede (1980) and Hofstede and Bond (1988) Table I. Scores (and ranks) for the four countries on Hofstede's dimensionsa European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 138 countries. From another perspective, in developed countries the markets are likely to be more competitive, and therefore, issues of customer service and satisfaction might be relatively more important. Therefore, in making decisions, marketers from developed countries are less likely to take actions that are detrimental to the reputation of the company, fearing regulation as well as consumer dissatisfaction. In the context of this study, marketers from the USA and Australia should place greater importance on ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness than marketers from South Africa and Malaysia. Differences in legal/political environment. In the Hunt and Vitell (1993) model, legal/political environment is depicted as a variable influencing ethical decision making. The relationship between the legal environment and ethics has been recognized by many business ethics scholars. For example, Beauchamp and Bowie (1993, p. 4) noted that: Law is the public's agency for translating morality into explicit social guidelines and practices and stipulating offenses. DeGeorge (1990, p. 14) noted that: Business is a social enterprise. Its mandate and limits are set by society. The limits are often moral, but they are also frequently written into law. Dunfee (1996, p. 18) stated that the legal system is sometimes required to nurture or implement the moral preferences of society, particularly with reference to universal moral prohibitions against physical harm. He also argued that where moral views have not converged toward a sufficiently broad consensus, the law may help to bring about a change in attitude. In the context of our study, these discussions imply that the legal/political framework within a country can be expected to impact a manager's perceptions about ethics and social responsibility. Business ethics scholars have also noted that the legal/political systems vary across countries (e. g. Vogel, 1992). In his analysis of the USA, Western Europe, and Japan, Vogel (1992) noted that in spite of globalization, the norms of business (as well as business and academic interest) in ethics were substantially higher in the USA than in other advanced capitalist countries. He attributed this to the distinctive institutional, legal, social, and cultural environment in the USA. In the context of this study, differences can be expected in the legal/political environments in the USA, Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa. While in the USA the legal/political systems are relatively well developed (and in Australia to a certain degree), the regulatory environments in Malaysia and South Africa are evolving, and therefore, the existence as well as the specificity of laws may vary across the four countries. The importance of ethics is also influenced by the degree of law enforcement, where we also can expect differences across the four countries. While elaborate legal/political systems prevail for enforcement in the USA, they are relatively less prevalent (and to varying degrees) in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa. Vogel (1992, p. 32) pointed out that even compared to other advanced countries, the enforcement of law in the USA is more stringent, and gave the following example, In America each new disclosure of business misconduct prompts a new wave of public indignation, accompanied by numerous articles n the business and popular press which bemoan the general decline in the ethical conduct of managers and seek to explain â€Å"what went wrong† in the most recent case. This is frequently followed by Congressional hearings featuring politicians demanding more vigilant prosecution of white-collar criminals; shortly thereafter, regulatory standards are tightened, penalties are increased, and enforcement efforts are strengthened. How important are ethics? 139 It should be recognized that the potential influences of the legal/political environment are more complex than discussed here, because of the range of issues involved as well as the aspects of environment that cannot be measured directly, such as the enforcement of regulatory systems. However, differences exist between the four countries in the legal/political environment, which can be expected to influence managers' perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility relative to organizational effectiveness. In the preceding paragraphs, country differences were analyzed based on three aspects: (1) culture; (2) economic development; and (3) legal/political environment. Overall, based on cultural differences, we expect Australian, Malaysian, US, and South African marketers to attach different levels of importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Based on economic environment differences, we expect that marketers from the USA and Australia will place greater importance on ethics and social responsibility than marketers from South Africa and Malaysia. Given that legal and political environments tend to vary between the four countries, we also expect the managers from these four diverse countries to attach different levels of importance to ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Thus, the following hypothesis was formulated: H1: Due to differences in culture, economic development, and legal/political environment, there are differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility among marketers in Malaysia, Australia, South Africa, and the USA. In analyzing country differences, it is evident that multiple aspects of country differences influence marketers' perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility, at times in conflicting ways (as in the effects of masculinity and individualism). Also, since this is the first attempt at investigating crosscultural variation in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the relative importance of differences in cultural European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 140 dimensions. Consequently, it is not possible to hypothesize the direction of differences, only their existence. Organizational ethical climate In the Hunt and Vitell (1986; 1993) models, organizational ethical climate is included as a background variable that affects a marketer's ethical decision making. Organizational ethical climate refers to the shared understanding regarding what is correct behavior and how ethical issues will be handled (DeConinck, 1992). It helps establish and maintain the standards that delineate the â€Å"right† things to do and the things â€Å"worth doing† (Jansen and Von Glinow, 1985). The ethical climate in an organization affects ethical attitudes and standards of individuals. An organization that seeks to foster an ethical environment will not only have a code of ethics, but also the willingness and commitment to enforce it. Managers consider modifying the morality of their actions not just because of stated organizational concern, but only when specific sanctions are attached for misconduct (e. g. Laczniak and Inderrieden, 1987). The contention that organizational pressures, and not individual moral deficiencies, account for unethical standards is held by several authors (e. . Ford and Richardson, 1994). Weeks and Nantel (1992) found that wellcommunicated codes of ethics led to higher ethical standards and superior job performance of salespeople in the USA. Consequently, marketers in companies with an ethical climate that encourages ethical and socially responsible behavior and that punishes unethical behavior would perceive ethics to be more important for orga nizational effectiveness. Research has shown that when ethical standards of an organization are widely shared, organizational success will be enhanced (Hunt et al. 1989). Relevant to this study, in a recent study of US marketers, Singhapakdi et al. (1995) revealed that marketers in organizations with high levels of corporate ethical values tended to assign a higher level of importance to certain elements of corporate ethics and social responsibility. Therefore, we hypothesize that H2: Irrespective of country, organizational ethical climate is positively related to managers' perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness. Gender Gender is generally recognized as an important personal characteristic influencing an individual's ethical decisions. For example, Gilligan (1982) argued that men and women differ in their moral reasoning. In particular, men are more likely to adhere to the â€Å"ethic of justice† by emphasizing rules and individual rights. Women, however, are more likely to adhere to the â€Å"ethic of care† by emphasizing relationships and compassion. In a recent meta-analysis, Franke et al. (1997) used data from more than 20,000 respondents in 66 samples nd revealed that women are more likely than men to perceive business practices as unethical. Although there has been no research directly investigating the effects of gender on perceived important of ethics and social responsibility, it has been incorporated in numerous marketing ethics studies. Based on the work of Gilligan (1982) and Franke et al. (1997), it can be argued that â€Å"the ethic of caring† exhibited by w omen would lead them to believe that taking actions in the interest of the customer would enhance company performance and would contribute to a perception of greater importance of ethics in organizational effectiveness. Thus, we would expect women to attach greater importance to ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. H3: Irrespective of country, women perceive ethics and social responsibility to be more important relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness than men. Age Marketing ethics theories generally recognize personal characteristics as determinants of various aspects of a marketer's ethical decision-making process (e. g. Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vitell, 1986). Age could also directly influence an individual's ethical decision. According to Kohlberg's (1981) cognitive moral development theory, an individual's cognition, emotion, and judgment may change as he/she moves through stages of moral development. Given that an individual moves through stages of moral development and the changes are essentially due to life experiences, intuitively one would expect a positive relationship between age and ethical behavior. In fact, Terpstra et al. (1993) have argued that people tend to become more ethical as they grow older. A good explanation is that as people age they tend to become less concerned with wealth and advancement and more interested in personal growth (Hall, 1976). In other words, older marketers are likely to appreciate the long-term benefits (to organizational performance) of acting in an ethical and socially responsible manner. Accordingly, we would generally expect a positive relationship between a marketer's age and his or her perception about the importance of ethics and social responsibility. H4: Irrespective of country, a marketer's age is positively related to his/her perception of the importance of ethics and social responsibility relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness. Methodology Sample A self-administered questionnaire was used as the data collection technique for all four groups of marketing practitioners. For the US and South African groups, national mailing lists of professional members of the American Marketing Association (AMA) and the South African Institute of Marketing How important are ethics? 141 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 142 Management were used as sampling frames. For the Australian sample, a mailing list of recipients of the Australian Marketing Institute magazine was used. For the Malaysian group, the sampling frame consisted of managers responsible for making marketing decisions for companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. The questionnaire was administered in English for all four samples. Because Malaysia and South Africa are members of the British Commonwealth, English is a well-understood language, particularly in the business setting. The numbers of respondents were: 500 from Australia, 446 from the USA, 256 from South Africa, and 159 from Malaysia[1]. The response rates were 22. 7 percent (USA), 13 percent (South Africa), and 45 percent (Malaysia). Since questionnaires were not directly mailed to the sample in Australia, the response rate could not be assessed. The non-response bias for the USA and South African samples was assessed with an analysis of variance between the early and late respondent groups (Armstrong and Overton, 1977). There were no statistical differences among the two groups for either country[2]. The profiles of the respondents are summarized in Table II. They represent a range of age groups, gender, job titles, industry, and years of experience, with minor differences between the four sets of respondents. Age and gender were included in the analyses. Other variables (such as job title, education, and industry) were not included as control variables because educational systems, industry classifications, and job titles and functions vary from country to country. Measures Singhapakdi et al. (1995) developed a scale for measuring managers' perceptions about the importance of ethics and social responsibility (PRESOR) in organizational effectiveness. Seven of the 14 items from that scale were used, relating to specific aspects of organizational effectiveness such as output quality, efficiency, profitability, communication, long-term survival, competitiveness, and stakeholder satisfaction. Excluded items were statements such as â€Å"Good ethics is good business† and â€Å"Corporate strategy should include ethics and social responsibility†, which do not address specific aspects of organizational effectiveness. The scale items used in the analyses are shown in Table III. The factor structures were found to be similar across the four countries and the reliabilities were generally high[3]. It may be noted that the PRESOR scale has previously performed satisfactorily in terms of reliability, as well as content and predictive validity (Singhapakdi et al. , 1995, 1996). Organizational ethical climate, gender and age. The corporate ethical values (CEV) scale developed by Hunt et al. (1989) was used in this study to measure organizational ethical climate. The scale was designed to reflect â€Å"a composite of the individual ethical values of managers and both the formal and informal policies on ethics of the organization† (Hunt et al. , 1989). The five-item CEV scale[4] was developed to three broad-based perceptions: Characteristics of respondents Gender Male Female Age group Under 30 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 and over 50 Education High school or less Some college Bachelor's degree Master's degree Doctorate Othera Job title CEO/president/MD/director Marketing managers Others Industry USA Wholesale or retail Manufacturer or construction Services Communications Advertising or public relations Marketing consulting Other Malaysiab Consumer products Diversified Construction Trading services Finance Properties Plantation Mining and primary resources Notes: sample; a b Australia (%) Malaysia (%) South Africa (%) USA (%) How important are ethics? 73. 0 27. 0 20. 0 35. 0 29. 0 17. 0 11. 0 15. 0 58. 0 15. 0 1. 0  ± 37. 0 52. 0 11. 0 84. 0 16. 0 11. 0 39. 0 40. 0 10. 0 6. 0 10. 0 43. 0 24. 0 1. 0 16. 0 39. 0 30. 0 31. 0 80. 0 20. 0 4. 0 29. 0 40. 0 27. 0 6. 0 15. 0 30. 0 30. 0 19. 0 2. 0 44. 0 37. 0 19. 0 51. 0 49. 0 17. 0 37. 0 29. 0 17. 0 1. 0 6. 0 43. 0 43. 0 6. 0  ± 47. 0 43. 0 10. 0 143 3. 0 10. 0 20. 0 33. 0 7. 0 17. 0 6. 0  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ± 37. 0 4. 0 3. 0 28. 0 11. 0 13. 0 3. 0 1. 0 7. 0 20. 0 25. 0 7. 0 1. 0 5. 0 35. 0  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ± 12. 0 17. 0 35. 0 9. 0 7. 0 18. 0 2. 0  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ±  ± Other educational qualifications include professional education in the Malaysian This categorization of industries was appropriate in the Malaysian context Table II. Profiles of respondents in Australia, Malaysia, South Africa and USA 144 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 Organizational effectiveness dimension Univariate tests Quality: while output quality is essential for corporate success, ethics and social responsibility are not NS Communication: communication is more important to the overall effectiveness of an organization than whether or not it is concerned with ethics and social responsibility 5. 1 0. 0001 Profits: The most important concern for a firm is making profits, even if it means bending or breaking rules 5. 45 0. 0001 Competitiveness: To remain competitive in a global environment, business firms will have to disregard ethics and social responsibility NS Survival: If survival of a business enterprise is at stake, then you must forget about ethics and social responsi bility 21. 25 0. 0001 Efficiency: Efficiency is much more important to the firm than whether or not the firm is seen as ethical or socially responsible 14. 1 0. 0001 Stakeholder satisfaction: If stakeholders are unhappy, nothing else matters 11. 19 0. 0001 Multivariate tests  ± F based on Wilk's lambda (21, 3,673 df) 5. 38 0. 0001 66. 43 28. 62 74. 24 49. 95 39. 79 29. 46 27. 17 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 0. 0001 Table III. Multivariate and univariate results Country Organizational culture Gender Age 17. 88 0. 0001 3. 68 0. 0552 8. 97 0. 0028 6. 46 0. 0112 17. 63 0. 00001 NS NS 2. 56 NS 0. 0535 NS NS NS NS NS 1) the extent to which employees perceive their managers are acting ethically in their organization (item 1); (2) the extent to which employees perceive that managers are concerned about the issues of ethics in their organization (item 3); and (3) the extent to which employees perceive that ethical (unethical) behavior is rewarded (punished) in their orga nization (items 2, 4, and 5) (Hunt et al. , 1989). The CEV was measured using a nine-point Likert scale with 1= â€Å"completely disagree†and 9= â€Å"completely agree†. For each respondent, the CEV score was obtained by summing all CEV items (with items 1 and 2 reverse-coded). A high CEV score means that the manager works in an organization with higher corporate ethical values. The similarity of factor structures of the CEV scale between the four countries was assessed to be moderate and the reliabilities of the scale were high[5]. The CEV measure has been used in the past (e. g. Hunt et al. , 1989; Singhapakdi et al. , 1995). Gender was measured as a dichotomous variable and age was measured in four categories. Results Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed using the seven PRESOR items as dependent variables, and the country of residence, organizational ethical climate, gender, and age as independent variables[6]. MANOVA results show that overall country of residence, organizational ethical climate, gender, and age significantly explain differences between marketers from the four countries in their perception of the importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness (F = 5. 38 based on Wilks' Lambda, p < 0. 001). H1 states that there are country differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified significant cross-country differences between marketers on all PRESOR items except output quality and competitiveness. For example, there are differences in the extent to which marketers from the four countries believe that â⠂¬Å"the most important concern for a firm is making profits, even if it means bending or breaking rules† (F = 5. 45, p < . 001). Also, there are differences in the extent to which they agree with statements such as â€Å"if survival of a business enterprise is at stake, then you must forget about ethics and social responsibility† (F = 21. 25, p < 0. 0001), â€Å"efficiency is much more important to the firm than whether or not the firm is seen as ethical or socially responsible† (F = 14. 91, p < . 0001), and â€Å"communication is much more important to the overall effectiveness of an organization than whether or not it is concerned with ethics and social responsibility† (F = 5. 1, p < 0. 0001). Therefore, there is support for H1 (average scores for marketers from the four countries on each of the seven items are given in Table IV). How important are ethics? 145 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 146 H2 states that the organizational ethical climate posi tively influences managers' perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. In fact, results indicate it has a strong influence on all seven dimensions of PRESOR with F statistics ranging from 27. 17 to 74. 24 (with all p ; 0. 0001). Therefore, H2 is supported. Results also indicate gender differences in managers' perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness on the quality, communication, profits, competitiveness, and survival dimensions, but not on the efficiency and stakeholder satisfaction dimensions (F statistics ranging from 3. 68 to 17. 88). Therefore, H3 is generally supported. Also, results related to H4 indicate that, in general, there are no age differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in achieving organizational effectiveness. Therefore, H4 is not supported. The lack of significance of age in influencing PRESOR is probably a reflection of the greater impact of environmental factors such as greater societal expectations and awareness about ethical issues. Discussion and implications The current investigation into cross-country variation in perceptions of marketing professionals regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of business success has potential implications for international companies. In the international marketing context, cultural, economic, and other gaps between international buyers and sellers create the potential for conflicts of values, which in turn hinder smooth business interactions between the parties. Whether a marketing organization engages in exporting, importing, joint ventures, licensing agreements or fully owns an overseas operation, the scope exists for conflict of values, especially in the areas of marketing ethics and social responsibility. For example, in recent years, companies in the USA have faced public disapproval of the unethical practices of their overseas suppliers. As businesses all over the world progressively globalize their operations, it becomes necessary that they understand whether there are significant gaps between their ethical and social responsibility perceptions and their overseas partners. Such perceptual gaps need to be systematically investigated and measures taken to reduce or, preferably, eliminate them in the interest of establishing enduring international business Organizational effectiveness dimension Australia 7. 67 6. 16 6. 93 7. 56 7. 22 6. 44 6. 82 Malaysia 7. 61 5. 27 6. 61 7. 27 5. 76 5. 12 5. 79 South Africa 7. 96 6. 40 7. 01 7. 71 7. 05 6. 26 6. 6 USA 7. 82 6. 23 7. 46 7. 69 7. 64 6. 72 7. 08 Table IV. Output quality Mean perceived Communication importance of ethics Profits and social responsibility scores on Competitiveness different dimensions of Survival Efficiency organizational Stakeholder satisfaction effectiveness relationships. This study identified three sources of gaps that can exist between marketers from d ifferent countries in terms of the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. They are: (1) Country differences in culture, economic development, and legal/ political environment. 2) Differences in organizational ethical climate. (3) Gender differences. Similarities and differences were found between countries in terms of the extent to which they find ethics and social responsibility to be important relative to some dimensions of organizational effectiveness. On two dimensions, output quality and competitiveness, there were no significant inter-country differences. It seems that output quality and competitiveness are universal business orientations exhibited by marketing executives, which is consistent with globalization of markets and the accompanying intensification of competition. International companies, therefore, may assume that their counterparts in different parts of the world will be as concerned with output quality and competitiveness (relative to ethical and social responsibility concerns). Hence, these two core business values can provide common bases for successful international negotiations and establishing long-term relationships, which are critical for success in the international business arena. While there are inter-country similarities on these two dimensions, significant inter-country differences were found with regard to other organizational effectiveness dimensions: communications, efficiency, profits, survival, and stakeholder satisfaction. Based on the findings of our study, multi-national companies who transfer employees between these four countries can help them anticipate differences in perceptions about the importance of ethics and social responsibility relative to different aspects of organizational effectiveness. For example, Malaysian companies posting managers in Australia (or South Africa or the USA) might want to educate them about the environmental differences that lead to Australian managers placing greater importance on ethics and social responsibility relative to profitability, efficiency, communication, survival, and stakeholder satisfaction. These perceptual differences can impact ethical attitudes and actions, and therefore, managerial expectations about overseas employees should be altered accordingly. Corporate managers should also give a thought to what can be done to overcome these differences in perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. The content of ethics training programs can incorporate the findings of this study by developing scenarios and cases highlighting the tradeoffs between ethics and social responsibility, and specific aspects of organizational effectiveness, such as efficiency and stakeholder satisfaction. These scenarios can be extended by including cross-national differences in How important are ethics? 47 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 148 culture, economic development, and legal/political environment, as well as differences in perceptions about ethics and social responsibility across countries. Organizational ethical climate positively influenced the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility across all four countries. Irrespective of the country, organizational ethical climate had a strong influence on all seven dimensions of organizational effectiveness vis-a-vis ethics A and social responsibility. Therefore, we can conclude that organizations from different countries with similar organizational ethical climates can find common ground on issues of ethics and social responsibility. Hence, international companies, when scouting for suitable partners in foreign markets, may look for overseas partners with similar organizational ethical values. This would ensure smoother business relations and interactions especially in the areas of ethics and social responsibility. Also, it is useful for international marketers to know that, in general, women perceive ethics and social responsibility to be more important in achieving organizational effectiveness than men, though there are no differences across age groups. This is particularly relevant given the increase in employment of women in the workplace. Limitations This study has some potential limitations. One concerns the limited number of factors investigated in our study. Ethical decision making is a very complex phenomenon, and exploring cross-cultural differences is even more difficult. For example, in addition to the variables we studied, marketing ethics theories have also specified moral philosophies, personal values, religion, professional environment, and organizational and industrial characteristics as important background factors underlying the ethical decision making of managers (e. g. Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vitell, 1986). However, the scope of this study is limited to cultural dimensions, economic environment, organizational ethical climate, and selected demographic variables as explanatory factors. It should be pointed out that in this study, some important demographic variables, such as education, were not included because of a lack of conceptual equivalence, as explained in the next section. Another limitation concerns the samples analyzed in this study. Although four relatively diverse countries were studied, the findings can not be generalized to other countries with different cultural characteristics and levels of economic development. Future research avenues This research can be extended in many ways. As a first step, a non-directional hypothesis for country differences was presented. This was necessitated by the fact that this was the first study dealing with the investigation of cross-cultural variation in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. Future research should investigate the direction of expected differences. A comprehensive framework modeling antecedents and consequences of the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility can be developed and tested. This will add another dimension to our understanding of ethical decision making. As pointed out earlier, one limitation of this study concerns its limited samples and, consequently, its limited generalizability. Therefore, there is a need to replicate this study using managerial samples from other countries with different cultural characteristics and/or levels of economic development. Given the complexity of the phenomenon under study, future research should investigate other determinants specified in marketing ethics models, such as moral philosophies, personal values, religion, professional environment, and organizational and industrial characteristics. Among demographic variables, education could be an important determinant but was not included because of a lack of conceptual equivalence. In cross-cultural research, conceptual equivalence in terms of the meaning of research concepts, stimuli, and materials must first be established before any meaningful comparisons are made (Malhotra et al. , 1996). In our study, the US sample is predominantly business-educated, which might not be the case with the other three samples. In addition to differences in the educational background of the managers, the lack of conceptual equivalence can also be attributed to: . The educational systems and curricula in the four countries being different. . Differences in the extent to which ethics is required to be emphasized in the curriculum content across different countries (for example, accredited business schools in the USA are required to incorporate business ethics into their curricula, and such requirements might exist to a greater or lesser degree in other countries). . Variation in the extent to which ethics is actually incorporated and emphasized in the curricula. Thus, it is not education per se, but the incorporation of ethics into educational curricula, the actual implementation, and its impact on the managers that is likely to influence their perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. In the future, the cross-country differences in educational background of the respondents as well as the extent to which ethics is emphasized in education should be measured, and analyzed as a potential factor influencing a manager's perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility. Conclusion To summarize, this research investigated whether marketers from Australia, Malaysia, South Africa, and the USA differ in their beliefs regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility as determinants of organizational effectiveness. The study was based on an alternative approach to studying perceptions about ethical issues and problems in business. Traditionally cross- How important are ethics? 149 European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 150 cultural researchers have evaluated ethical perceptions, attitudes, and intentions with regard to specific business/marketing practices involving ethical problems. Here, we investigate differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility in relation to various aspects of organizational effectiveness such as quality, communication, profits, competitiveness, survival, efficiency, and stakeholder satisfaction. The results of this study are important because perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility has been shown to influence ethical intention, when managers are faced with an ethical situation (Singhapakdi, 1999). Results indicate that differences in the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility among marketers from the four countries exist because of: . ountry differences in culture, economic development, and legal/political environment; . differences in organizational ethical climate; and . gender differences. There are not any differences due to age. Overall similarities and differences among the four countries emerged on specific dimensions of business effectiveness. On the dimensions of out put quality and competitiveness, there were no differences among the four countries. Inter-country differences were found on the dimensions of communication, efficiency, profits, survival, and stakeholder satisfaction. These findings regarding cross-cultural similarities and differences are useful in furthering our understanding and management of ethics and social responsibility in the international context. Notes 1. For subsequent analysis using LISREL, a sample size of 159 was judged adequate because it is close to the recommended level of ten observations for every parameter estimated (Haire et al. , 1998). 2. For the Australian and Malaysian sample, the non-response bias based on early and late respondents could not be assessed as this information (i. e. dates when the questionnaires were received) was not recorded at the time of data collection. . The similarity of factor structures of the seven-item scale for individual countries was assessed with confirmatory factor analysis. Fit measures for individual countries, including chi-square per degree of freedom (range 1. 87-3. 32), GFI (0. 94-0. 97), AGFI (0. 890. 95), and CFI (range 0. 91-0. 96), for the four countries were high. The reliability of the seven-item scale ranged from 0. 73-0. 76 for the four countries. 4. The five items in the corporate ethical values scale were: . Managers in my company often engage in behavior that I consider to be unethical. . In order to succeed in my company, if is often necessary to compromise one's ethics. Top management in my company has let it be known in no uncertain terms that unethical behaviors will not be tolerated. If a manager in my company is discovered to have engaged in unethical behavior that results in personal gain (rather than corporate gain), he/she will be promptly reprimanded. . If a manager in my company is discovered to have engaged in unethical behavior that results in corporate gain (rather than personal gain), he/she will be promptly reprimanded. 5. The similarity of factor structures of the five-item CEV scale for individual countries was assessed with confirmatory factor analysis. Fit measures for individual countries, including chi-square per degree of freedom (range 2. 00-35. 23), GFI (0. 88-0. 99), AGFI (0. 63-0. 99), and CFI (range 0. 74-0. 99), for the four countries were moderate. The reliability of the five-item scale ranged from 0. 69-0. 87 for the four countries. 6. Since a requirement of MANOVA is that the dependent variables be correlated, the appropriateness of the multivariate technique was tested by Bartlett's test of sphericity (Hair et al. 1998). The test (Bartlett's chi-square = 123. 7 with six degrees of freedom, p = 0. 001) indicated that MANOVA is appropriate for analyzing the data. . How important are ethics? 151 References Armstrong, J. S. and Overton, T. S. (1977), â€Å"Estimating non-response bias in mail surveys†, Journal of Marketing Research, No. 14 No. 3, pp. 396-402. Armstrong, R. W. , Sten ing, B. W. , Ryans, J. K. , Marks, L. and Mayo, M. (1990), â€Å"International marketing ethics: problems encountered by Australian firms†, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 10, pp. 5-19. Beauchamp, T. L. and Bowie, N. E. (1993), Ethical Theory and Business, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ . Becker, H. and Fritzsche, D. J. (1987), â€Å"A comparison of the ethical behavior of American, French and German managers†, Columbia Journal of World Business, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 87-96. Czinkota, M. R. and Ronkainen, I. A. (1998), International Marketing, Dryden Press, Orlando, FL. DeConinck, J. B. (1992), â€Å"How sales managers control unethical sales force behavior†, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 11 No. 10, pp. 789-98. DeGeorge, R. T. (1990), Business Ethics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Dubinsky, A. J. , Jolson, M. A. , Kotabe, M. and Lim, C. U. (1991), â€Å"A cross-national investigation of industrial salespeople's ethical perceptions†, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 651-71. Dunfee, T. (1996), â€Å"On the synergistic, interdependent relationship of business ethics and law†, American Business Law Journal, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 317-28. Ferrell, O. C. and Gresham, L. G. (1985), â€Å"A contingency framework for understanding ethical decision making in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49 No. 3, pp. 87-96. Ford, R. C. and Richardson, W. D. 1994), â€Å"Ethical decision making: a review of the empirical literature†, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 205-21. Franke, G. R. , Crown, D. F. and Spake, D. F. (1997), â€Å"Gender differences in ethical perceptions of business practices†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 82 No. 6, pp. 92- 4. Gilligan, C. (1982), In a Different Voice: Psycholog ical Theory and Womens Development, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Graham, J. L. (1985), â€Å"The influence of culture on business negotiations: an exploratory study†, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 81-96. Hair, J. F. , Anderson, R. E. , Tatham, R. L. and Black, W. C. (1998), Multivariate Data Analysis, Macmillan, New York, NY. Hall, E. T. (1976), Beyond Culture, Anchor Books, Doubleday Garden City, NY. Hofstede, G. (1980), â€Å"National cultures in four dimensions: a research based theory of cultural differences among nations†, International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 13 No. 1-2, pp. 46-74. European Journal of Marketing 35,1/2 152 Hofstede, G. (1983), â€Å"Motivation, leadership, and organization: do American theories apply abroad? ‘, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 42-63. Hofstede, G. and Bond, M. H. (1988), â€Å"The Confucious connection: from cultural roots to economic growth†, O rganizational Dynamics, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 5-21. Hunt, S. D. and Vitell, S. (1986), â€Å"A general theory of marketing ethics†, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 5-16. Hunt, S. D. and Vitell, S. J. (1993), â€Å"The general theory of marketing ethics: a retrospective and revision†, in Smith, N. C. and Quelch, J. A. (Eds), Ethics in Marketing, Irwin Inc. , Homewood, IL, pp. 775-84. Hunt, S. D. , Wood, V. R. nd Chonko, L. B. (1989), â€Å"Corporate ethical values and organizational commitment in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 53 No. 3, pp. 79-90. Jansen, E. and Von Glinow, M. A. (1985), â€Å"Ethical ambience and organizational reward systems†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 814-22. Jones, T. M. (1991), â€Å"Ethical decision-making by individuals in organizations: an issue-contingent model†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 366-95. Kohlberg, L. (1981), The Meaning and Measurement of Moral Develop ment, Clark University Press, Worcester, MA. Laczniak, G. R. and Inderrieden, E. J. (1987), â€Å"The influence of stated organizational concern upon ethical decision making†, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp. 297-307. Laczniak, G. R. and Murphy, P. E. (1993), Ethical Marketing Decisions: The Higher Road, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA. Malhotra, N. K. , Agarwal, J. and Peterson, M. (1996), â€Å"Methodological issues in cross-cultural marketing research: a state-of-the-art review†, International Marketing Review, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 7-43. Mittelstaedt, J. D. and Mittelstaedt, R. A. (1997), â€Å"The protection of intellectual property: issues of origination and ownership†, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 14-25. Singhapakdi, A. (1999), â€Å"Perceived importance of ethics and ethical decisions in marketing†, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 89-99. Singhapakdi, A. , Vitell, S. J. and Leelakulthanit, O. (1994), â€Å"A cross-cultural study of moral philosophies, ethical perceptions and judgments: a comparison of American and Thai marketers†, International Marketing Review, Vol. 11 No. , pp. 65-78. Singhapakdi, A. , Kraft, K. L. , Vitell, S. J. and Rallapalli, K. C. (1995), â€Å"The perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility on organizational effectiveness: a survey of marketers†, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 49-56. Singhapakdi, A. , Vitell, S. J. , Rallapalli, K. C. and Kraft, K. L. (1996), â€Å"The perceived role of ethics and social respons ibility: a scale development†, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 15 No. 11, pp. 1131-40. Terpstra, D. E. , Rozell, E. J. and Robinson, R. K. 1993), â€Å"The influence of personality and demographic variables on ethical decisions related to insider trading†, The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 127 No. 4, pp. 375-89. Vogel, D. (1992), â€Å"The globalization of business ethics: why America remains distinctive†, California Management Review, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 30-49. Weeks, W. A. and Nantel, J. (1992), â€Å"Corporate codes of ethics and sales force behavior: a case study†, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 11 No. 10, pp. 753-60. Wotruba, T. R. (1997), â€Å"Industry self-regulation: a review and extension to a global setting†, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 38-5.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement Subject-Verb Agreement Subject-Verb Agreement By Guest Author This is a guest post by Jacquelyn Landis. If you want to write for Daily Writing Tips check the guidelines here. My copyediting students occasionally stumble when they see a sentence like this one: All the shirt needs is/are buttons. Which is it? The singular is or the plural are? Most of us know instinctively that the verb form must match the subject form in number. This is called subject-verb agreement. But sentences such as this one seem ambiguous since all can be either singular or plural when it’s used as an indefinite pronoun. It would be an easy choice if all were followed by a prepositional phrase to help us determine whether it’s singular or plural: All of the water is draining. (singular) All of us are tired. (plural) So, what many writers would do with the problematic sentence is turn to buttons to help them make the decision. And since buttons is plural, then the verb should be plural, too. Right? Well, not quite. Buttons in this sentence is whats called a predicate nominative. Now, I know grammar terms like this are enough to send most people screaming into the night, but stick with me. A predicate nominative is simply a noun that is the same as the subject. It describes it further, just as buttons describes all. Predicate nominatives do not determine the verb form; only the subject can do that. And the subject of our puzzling sentence, all, is a singular pronoun even though what it substitutes for (buttons) is plural. It stands on its own with no help from a prepositional phrase. When this is the case, it’s singular. Thus, the correct verb form is also singular, so this is how our sentence should read: All the shirt needs is buttons. Follow the same logic when the subject is what: What he ordered was steamed clams. Whenever Im tempted to use a plural verb in sentences such as this, I remind myself of a song: All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth. The songs authors were teachers, and they got it right. Jacquelyn teaches an online copyediting course to students from around the world Education to Go. Check it out. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Inquire vs EnquireList of Greek Words in the English LanguageUsing "zeitgeist" Coherently

Aristotles Tragedy essays

Aristotles Tragedy essays Aristotle defines Greek tragedy by the presence of a great mistake performed by the protagonist due to particular flaws, which leads to an inevitable sequence of events. One of the flaws is that of Hubris, the capital sin of pride, and thus the antithesis of two ethics that the Greeks valued highly. Aidos (humble reverence for the law) and Sophrosyne (self-restraint, a sense of proper limits). In Greek Literature, hubris often afflicted rulers and conquerors who, though endowed with great leadership abilities, abused their power and authority and challenged the divine balance of nature to gratify their own vanity and ambition. Aristotles Poetics both described and prescribed the structure of drama as it had evolved by the fourth century BC . One of the passages consists of this; The best plot...will consist in a change of fortune... from prosperity to misfortune, occasioned not by depravity but by some great mistake... Tragedy having this construction is the finest kind of trag edy from an artistic point of view. Aeschylus Agamemnon accompanies the description of tragedy very well, due to Agamemnons actions (which include mainly the great mistake), lack of Aidos and lack of knowledge. He fell from extreme prosperity from returning home after the war, to extreme misfortune, being killed by Clytaemnestra. The play Agamemnon fits this poetic very well and lies within the relationship of the protagonist to the inevitable sequence of events. The inevitable sequence of events starts with Agamemnon having a tremendous flaw that plagued him throughout the story of the Trojan War as well as his return to his home. This flaw starts his downfall to death by allowing him to perform the great mistake. That flaw was Hubris, the capital sin of pride. In Greek Literature, hubris often afflicted rulers and conquerors who, though endowed with great leadership abilities, abused thei...

Budget Planning and Control Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Budget Planning and Control - Assignment Example Budgets are highly important in obtaining debts from the financial institutions. Banks and trade creditors usually examine the financial stability of the company to ensure that their debts are well secured by the assets of the company. Effective budgets reflect the plans and cash flows of the company that makes it easier for the creditors to decide whether or not to grant debts (Kemp, 2003). Effective budgets assist the management in determining the costs with accuracy. If the company determines the costs and expenses in advance, it will help them in making pricing decisions and in implementing the cost control policy. Thus it is necessary to prepare effective budgets in order to establish strategies that are important in highly competitive markets. 1. Nordstrom should decide on budget committee and the participants that should be involved in the budget setting process. Participation of managers is essential to consider their point of view while establishing budgets. 8. Review the performance on a timely basis and determine any variation in actual results about budget. Investigate the problem and reasons behind the variation to resolve the matter on efficiently (Shapiro, 2008). An important aspect of budget management is employee participation. Managers of individual departments should be informed on regular basis about any updates and alterations made in the budgets. By getting regular updates, it will become easier for the managers to implement the budgets and changes on a timely basis. Another advantage of the employee participation is that it motivates the employees and create the sense of ownership among them (Donovan, 2005). For long-term and effective implementation of budgets, it is necessary to keep track of resources to determine whether or not they are sufficient to fulfill future needs. In case of lack of resources or destruction of resources, budgets should be altered in such a way

Google Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Google - Research Paper Example Termed as â€Å"BackRub† initially, this search engine was refined and modified. It later led to the creation of the company that the world admires today; Google. Google started operations from Susan Wojcicki‘s garage at 232 Santa Margarita, Menlo Park. The initial funds for the company were provided by Sun co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim. Larry and Sergey, the co-founders, hired their fellow graduate at Standford, Craig Silverstein, as their first employee. There has been no looking back ever since. By mid-1999, the company had, led by venture capitalists Sequoia Capital and Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers, completed a $25-million round of equity funding. In May 2010, the first 10 language versions of Google.com were released. The search engine was now available in French, German, Italian, Swedish, Finnish, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Norwegian and Danish. By September, Google had started offering search in 15 languages including Chinese, Japanese and Korean. In February of 2001, the company acquired Deja.com’s Usenet Discussion Service, an archive of 500 million Usenet discussions. The company opened its first international office in Tokyo in August 2001. By the end of the year, index size of Google grew to 3 billion web documents. In May 2002, Google inked a deal with AOL that enabled it to offer search and sponsored links to as many as 34 million customers who used CompuServe, Netscape and AOL.com. Google continued its inorganic route to expansion and acquired Pyra Labs, the creators of Blogger, in February 2003. One of the most important acquisitions of the company has been that of Applied Semantics, whose technology immensely bolstered Google’s content-targeted advertising service named Adsense. Google made its initial foray into the domain of social networking when it launched Orkut in January 2004. A couple of months later, the company moved to its new abode â€Å"Googleplex† at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway in Mountain View. In October 2004, the company acquired Keyhole, a digital mapping company. It was Keyhole’s technology that later helped Google launch Google Earth. By February 2005 Google had 1.1 billion images indexed. A month later, the company acquired a web analytics company, Urchin, whose technology is behind Google Analytics. The acquisition spree continued for Google in 2006 as it acquired dMarc, a digital radio advertising company in January, Writely, a web-based word processing application in March and JotSpot, a collaborative wiki platform in October. The company continued to expand its reach as it forged an alliance with China Mobile in January 2007. The deal enabled Google to provide mobile and Internet search services in China. The same year in June, the company announced a partnership with Salesforce.com, clubbing the latter’s on-demand CRM applications with its own AdWords. In September 2009, Google acquire reCAPTCHA, a technology company focused on Optical Character R ecognition (OCR). Picnik, a site that enables users to edit photos in the cloud, without leaving the browser, was acquired in March 2010. In February 2011, a new search algorithm that has a bearing on 11.8 percent of queries was refined to give better search results. Earlier this year, Google launched Google +, the company’s latest foray into the world of social network